Practical very large CRFs

Citation

Lavergne, T., O. Cappé, and F. Yvon. Practical very large scale CRFs. ACL-2010.

Online Version

An online version of the paper is available here [1]

Summary

The goal of this paper is to show challenges and results when trying to use Conditional Random Fields with a very large number of features. They detail and compare the 3 methods for computing the $\ell ^{1}$ penalty, as the sparsity introduced by the $\ell ^{1}$ penalty makes the model significantly more compact.

The methods they compare are:

• Quasi Newton
• Stochastic Gradient Descent
• Block Coordinate Descent

The conclusions they reach are:

• Quasi Newton is probably the best when dealing with small/moderate sized applications
• Block Coordinate Descent is efficient with very large feature sets, as long as there is a limited observation alphabet
• Stochastic Gradient Descent seems to be the best choice for large scale applications, as long as it is fine-tuned
• Large-scale sparse models can be efficiently trained, and perform better than small models.

Implementation Issues with Large Scale CRFs

The paper goes into detail about a few issues with implementing CRFs on a large scale, many of which are useful for implementation issues:

• As a generally accepted practice when using the Forward-Backward algorithm or any large probabilistic chain, people tend to work in the log-domain to guarantee avoidance of over/underflow. This causes a massive slowdown due to repeated calls to $\operatorname {exp}$ and $\operatorname {log}$. They work around this by normalizing $\alpha$ and $\beta$ calls, and vectorizing $\operatorname {exp}$ calls.
• Computing the gradient often requires the most computation time. They resolve this by doing a few things:
  • Using a sparse matrix M, the computation time becomes proportional to the average number of active features (as opposed to being proportional to all possible features)
  • Parallelizing Forward-Backward
  • In addition, Block Coordinate Descent also has the property of being able to truncate forward and backward probabilities after a certain point, which speeds up the running of this immensely.
• For large scale feature vectors (of size $K$, which could be billions), memory begins to become an issue
  • Block Coordinate Descent only requires a single vector of size $K$
  • Stochastic Gradient Descent requires 2 vectors of size $K$
  • Quasi Newton is implementation specific, but the authors' implementation required on the order of 12 vectors of size $K$

Experiments

The paper runs experiments on two domains: Part of Speech Tagging and Phonetization. Since runtime performance is also important, they run all of the processes on the same machine, and they are all using the same frameworks to allow for a fair competition.

Phonetization

They use Nettalk, which contains ~20k English words, and their pronunciations and some prosodic information. They attempt to produce phonetizations for the test data.

Results

Reg. is the regularization function used. Method is the method used (which n-gram features). # Feat. is the number of features selected, not the total possible feature space.

This shows the accuracy without prosodic features.

Reg.	Method	Iter.	# Feat.	Error	Time
OWL-QN	1-gram	63.4	4684	17.79%	11min
OWL-QN	7-gram	140.2	38214	8.12%	1h02min
OWL-QN	5-gram+	141.0	43429	7.89%	1h37min
SGD	1-gram	21.4	3540	18.21%	9min
SGD	5-gram+	28.5	34319	8.01%	45min
BCD	1-gram	28.2	5017	18.27%	27min
BCD	7-gram	9.2	3692	8.21	1h22min
BCD	5-gram+	8.7	47675	7.91%	2h18min

Comparative results on Nettalk using CRFs are difficult to find, but the two examples they give (88.4% accuracy and 91.7% accuracy) seem to make the results pretty decent.

When running with prosodic features, they could not produce a model for Quasi Newton, and they don't really have anything to compare the results to.

Reg.	Method	Error	Time
SGD	5-gram	14.71%/8.11%	55min
SGD	5-gram+	13.91%/7.52%	2h45min
BCD	5-gram	14.57%/8.06%	2h46min
BCD	7-gram	14.12%/7.86%	3h02min
BCD	5-gram+	13.85%/7.47%	7h14min
BCD	5-gram++	13.69%/7.36%	16h03min

Part of Speech Tagging

They use the Penn TreeBank for training, and Wall Street Journal for testing. They don't really give an in-depth analysis of the results, only saying that BCD is impractical to train, leading them to the conclusion that the method should only be used when the number of "blocks" is small. They also describe using an incremental training task, that uses begins only using features on the current word, then after a couple iterations adds in bigrams, then after a couple iterations add trigrams, etc. It produces an error rate of 2.63%/2.75% for POS Tagging, though they don't report the run speed.

Related Work

This paper is very important to the work being done on CRFs. They are defined in this paper:

• John Lafferty, Fernando Pereira, and Andrew McCallum. 2001. Conditional random fields: Probabilistic models for segmenting and labeling sequence data. In Proceedings of ICML.

Another "efficiency" paper, this time modeling the problem of semantic role labeling as a tree labeling problem to allow for an efficient algorithm:

• Semantic role labelling with tree conditional random fields, by T. Cohn, P. Blunsom. In Ninth Conference on Computational Natural Language Learning, 2005.